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mindperformer

Oldest crops of mankind

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Timeline of food plants (not only cultivated crops):
Tubers like Vigna frutescens, V. macrorhyncha and Vatovaea pseudolablab were dug out from the ground 2-5 million years ago and are still used by the Hadza: http://books.google....%20food&f=false
Roots and fruits of Acacia-, Grewia-, Justicia-, Cordia-, Salvadora-, Ficus-, Trichilia- and Sclerocarya (Marula)- species were certainly hominid-food, which was found by remodelling the vegetation by archeological findings from the lowermost bed 2, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (1,8 million years): http://www.researchg..._modern_analogs, http://www.naturalhu..._human_diet.htm
Almonds, Pistachios and Water Chestnuts were included in the diets 780.000 years ago in Northern Israel: http://www.sciencene...ating_wild_nuts
Great millet (Sorghum bicolor), used since 100.000 years in Eastern Africa, It should be Sorghum bicolor subsp. arundinaceum, but the taxonomy is very complicated. It is used since 100.000 years according to the finding in the cave in Mozambique.: http://www.nature.co....2009.1147.html, http://www.scienceda...91217141312.htm
Morama beans (Tylosema syn. Bauhinia esculentum) from Africa are one of the oldest food, they are roasted on the fire in the Kalahari and sometimes grindes to flour
African spider flower or Bastard mustard (Cleome gynandra syn. Gynandropsis gynandra) stems from the rift valley in Eastern Africa and parts of Southern Africa and is also thought to be a hominid-vegetable. Nowadays it is eaten as leaf-vegetable throughout Africa.
Baobab fruits were used, highly probable by the early hominids, is distributed throughout Africa and is still in use by one of the oldest tribes- the Hadza in Tanzania and also by the KhoiKhoi in Botswana. Baobab trees are the oldest known trees within the flowering plants, up to 3.000 years, so this trees witnessed human history.
Common reed (Phragmites australis)- and Reed Grass (Phragmites mauritianus)- seeds and tubers are thought to be a food of the hominids, as is Bauhinia petersiana, Guibourtia coleosperma and Schotia afra
Peas (Pisum sativum) Carbonised wild pea seeds were found at the archeological Kebara site in Israel (from 60.000 years before past): http://books.google....%20peas&f=false ...but they came from South-Central Asia and are cultivated for 10.000 years
Yam (Dioscorea) domestic use began 52.000 years ago, cultivation started 5.000 years ago (Dioscorea cayenensis and D. rotundata) in Africa and other species still earlier in Indonesia

Taro was introduced into the Solomons for human use from 25.000 years ago, also there are evidences for cultivation since 9.000 years in Papua New Guinea http://www.bbc.co.uk...RSrqVQYQ5ECaZwA, and it started 12.000 years ago in Indonesia
Wild barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum) and

Emmer (amelcorn, Triticum dicoccum, stems from wild emmer in southeastern Turkey: Triticum dicoccoides, and is the ancestor of durum wheat: Triticum durum) was used since at least 23.000 years. Findings of Wild Barley and Emmer from the paleolithic site Ohalo II in Israel were dated up to 23.500 years old. Barley was fermented in Mesopotamian Godin Tepe to what is thought to be the first beer, 5.500 years ago.

Tall Wild Pea (Pisum elatius)-, Perfoliate Pondweed (Potamogeton perfoliatus)- and Wigeon grass (Ruppia maritima)- seeds (with starches) were also found in the Ohalo II site (up to 23.500 years old).

Brome grains (Bromus pseudobrachystachys), Millet Grass grains (Piptatherum holciforme) and Rubus sp. fruits were found in the archeological site of Ohalo II near the Sea of Galiee in Israel, which was dated to around 19.400 years ago.
Rice (possible ancestor: Oryza rufipogon) is cultivated since 15.000 years: http://news.bbc.co.u...ure/3207552.stm
Lentils were one of the first domesticated crops, in the Near East, 9.500-13.000 years ago
Potatoes (wild forms like Solanum bukasovii from the S. brevicaule- complex) were harvested in the Peruvian andes since 13.000 years, evidence of domestication has been found at a 12.500 y. old site in Chile (Solanum tuberosum subsp. tuberosum 'Chiloé'); other wild ancestors: Solanum canasense and Solanum maglia
Figs and Wild Oats were cultivated 11.400 years ago in Gilgal, Israel

Einkorn (Triticum monococcum, stems from Wild Wheat: Triticum boeoticum, and is the ancestor of wheat: Triticum aestivum and spelt: Triticum spelta) was cultivated 11.300 years ago in the Jordan valley, but Wild Wheat was surely used much earlier.
Rye (Secale cereale) was cultivated in Abu Hureyra (Syria), as early as 11.000 years before past: http://archaeology.a...Abu-Hureyra.htm
Bottle gourds originated in Africa and was dispersed throughout Asia 11.000 years ago
Chilies are used in the Americas since 10.500 years (the wild relatives like Tepin)
Cassava (or Manioc, Manihot esculenta)- domestication began 10.000 years ago in the Amazon. Wild populations of M. esculenta subsp. flabellifolia were the progenitor.
Banana cultivation in Papua New Guinea goes back up to 10.000 years ago
Corn (its wild ancestor Teosinte) was harvested since 10.000 years
Squash cultivation began 10.000 y. ago in Oaxaca, Mexico
Cannabis indica- and C. sativa biotypes: Newest research proves that they are different separate species before cultivation and selection of biotypes began, and not arisen from each other. Before human interaction wild forms of Cannabis sativa spread highly likeable from Central Asia, and wild forms of Cannabis indica spread from the Himalaya (India and Nepal). Then humans selected various biotypes like the wide-leaflet C. indica strains from Afghanistan and Pakistan. The use is possibly 10.000 years old (hemp fiber patterns found on pottery and tools for retting the stems from a site in Taiwan, ten millenia old, highly likely Cannabis indica). The use might have its origin in Central Asia (C. sativa), in India no remains have been recovered which are older than 5.000 years. In China (C. indica) hemp cultivation (mainly for food purposes) goes back 5.000-6.000 years. A new finding of burnt cannabis seeds from Romania (C, sativa), at a site from the Kurgan people, was dated back to 5.000 years, so it early emerged in Europe. The evidences from the Yanghai tombs, Turpan, China (C. sativa) are only 2.700 years old. Earlier use (up to 7.500 years) was also found in Europe for fiber production. http://www.hempfood....a/iha02111.html, http://www.druglibra...a/jiha5208.html, http://www.botgard.u...abis/index.html, https://www.forum.haszysz.com/chemotaxonomic-analysis-cannabinoid-variation-cannabis-cannabaceae-t22436.html?amp;p=336009
Wild Grape (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris), which was once distributed from Spain to Central Asia, was used for wine making as early as 9.000 years ago in Cayönü, Turkey
Quinoa (some of the wilder forms) is cultivated in South America since 9000 years
Bitter Vetch seeds (Vicia ervilia) were cultivated for diet in Anatolia 8.000-9.000 years ago
Broad- or faba beans (Vica fabe) were used since 8.800 years in Israel

Apple- archeological findings of possibly cultivated apples from Anatolia were dated to about 8.500 years old. The cultivated apples (Malus x domestica and Malus x asiatica) are a cross between the wild species Malus sieversii, Malus sylvestris and Malus prunifolia, which were surely used much earlier.
Buckwheat has the wild ancestor Fagopyrum esculentum ssp. ancestrale which has a common distribution in Yunnan (like Tea), where is was also first domesticated around 8.000 years ago, it was first documented in Europe by at least the Middle Neolithic (ca. 6.000 years ago).
Sugarcane (Saccharum edule and S. officinarum) originated in Papua New Guinea, where it was cultivated 8.000 years ago
Amaranth is cultivated in South America since 8000 years
Chickpeas were cultivated in Anatolia 8.000 years ago and were also found (the wild ancestor Cicer reticulatum) in mesolithic cave layers in Southern France (dated 6.790 years old)
Coca is not only a stimulant but also one of the most nutritious food in the andes. From the Peruvian Coca (Erythroxylum coca var. coca) wild populations exist in the Eastern Andes, but the other three variations (Colombian Coca- Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense, Trujillo Coca- E. n. var. truxillense and Ipadú Coca- E. c. var. ipadú) are only known as cultivated plants. It is matter of discussion if some Ipadú populations in the Amazon are wild or escaped. It seems that it has some genes from crossing with a wild Amazonian Erythroxylum.
The earliest use is approximately 8.000 years ago, other sources indicate 4.000-5.000 years.
Common beans have their ancestor (Phaseolus aborigineus) in Peru and are cultivated since 8.000 years
Common- or Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum) is cultivated in the Caucasus since 7000 years and came from Central Asia and distribute since 5000 years, also escaped in Europe
Olives were first cultivated in Palestine around 6.000 years ago
Teff (Ethiopian millet, Eragrostis tef) originated in Ethiopia, 6.000 years ago from E. pilosa, the wild ancestor
Egusi- melons (Citrullus colocynthis, C. lanatus, Lagenaria siceraria and Cucumeropsis edulis) are cultivated at least since 5.800 years, wild forms were used earlier
Sesame came from India and is the oldest oilseed-crop, used since 5.500 years
Soy beans (the wild brown and black ancestors) were collected 5.500 years ago in China and cultivated 3.000 years ago
Onions have its ancestor in Iran, are cultivated since 5000 years and are mentioned (together with cucumbers) on a 4000 years old cuneiform
African Oil Palms (Elaeis guineensis) were used in West Africa 5.000 years ago
African millet or Ragi (Eleusine coracana) came from East Africa (origin of mankind) and is cultivated since 5000 years
Sweet Potato is cultivated in Central America since 4.500 years
Sumpweed (Iva annua var. macrocarpa) seeds were used by the North American Natives 4.000 years ago
Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) have been under cultivation more than 4000 years starting perhaps in Central Mexico from Wild Sunflower and moving throughout Northern America
From other Helianthus- species like Paleleaf Woodland Sunflower (Helianthus strumosus) and Jerusalem artichoke or Topinambour (Helianthus tuberosus) were first cultivated by the Native Americans long before the arrival of the Europeans
Quamash (Camasia quamash) bulbs were collected (from the wild) and consumed for at least 3000 years from Northern American native tribes in Kanada and the Northern US-states:
http://pages.usherbr...olEcol_2009.pdf
Bulrush millet (Pennisetum glaucum) came from tropical Africa and is cultivated since 3000 years
White fonio millet is also one of the oldest african crops
African rice (Oryza glaberrima) is cultivated in Western Africa since 3000 years, until now
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is an important staple crop in the Pacific for more than 3000 years. Its ancestor is possibly Artocarpus camansi, the Breadnut from Papua Newguinea.

Pear (Pyrus communis and marginally also P. nivalis, P. cordata)- has been cultivated in China for about 3.000 years (the genus Pyrus has its origin in the Tian Shan mountains).

The cultivated Pyrus communis subsp. communis stems from the two wild subspecies P.communis subsp. pyraster and P. communis subsp. caucasica.

Quince (Cydonia oblonga)- archeological findings from Hasanlu in eastern Kurdistan were 2.800 years old, but the wild forms were surely used much earlier. It had its origin in Central Asia (Turkey, the Kaukasus and Turkmenistan) but reached the Mediterranean region only in classical times (it was used 2.000 years ago by the Romans).
Tomatoes are cultivated in Mexico since 2.500 years

Medlar (Mespilus germanica) is native to Southwestern Asia and Southeastern Europe and was grown by the ancient greeks 2.200 years ago.
Sweet Chestnut has its origin in the Caucasian-Armenian area and is cultivated for over 2.000 years

Ohelo'ai (Vaccinium reticulatum) -berries as food might be one of the latest discoveries. This polynesian red blueberry- relative is an endemic of Hawaii, were it is sacred to the polynesians: http://www.instantha...jold2KTvE6anm0. The first settlers got to Hawaii around 1.500 years ago.
Cabbage tree (Cordyline australis) and New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides) were some of the latest food plant discoveries (new species not only a new cross or new selection). They are endemic to New Zealand and a traditional Maori-food. The first settlers arrived at the coast of New Zealand only 700 years ago.


Europe:

The Neandertal plant menu consisted of Typha latifolia (Bulrush)- tubers, Polygonum bistorta (Bistort), Arctium lappa (Burdock)- roots and other plants: http://bertrand.mafa...07%20Jeusel.pdf and the seeds of Typha- (angustifolia and latifolia), Brachypodium- and Sparganium- species were grinded to flour, 30.000 years ago: http://blogs.discove...s/#.UN0Dx2_aXBo
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)- use is thought to have its origin (wild forms of P. somniferum and P. setigerum) in the Western Mediterranean area and was used since the Paleolithic (ended 11.600 years ago) . Evidences for its cultivation from the La Hoguette culture in Southern France are 7.500-7.700 years old, which is the end of the Mesolithic. Excavations at Egolzwil, an archeological site in Switzerland have revealed signs of poppy cultivation dating back more then 6.000 years. Sites on the Meseta Norte Plateau in central Spain gave evidence for early agriculture (wheats and Papaver somniferum) 8.000 years ago. Poppies have been cultivated for 7.000 years in Mesopotamia and were found in Egyptian tombs. In Greek mythology it was associated with the goddess Demeter, with the origin in Minoan Crete (began 4.700 years ago).
Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) were used for for food 11.600 years ago and is widespread in Europe
Walnuts came from the Mediterranean area and are used since 9000 years

Brassicaceae: (selection split of the varieties began between 8.000 and 10.000 years ago)
Brassica rapa syn. B. campestris: Wild Turnip Rape is THE wild ancestor of many crops from this genus and has a far distribution, even here in Vienna. It is believed to be first cultivated
from around 4000 years ago. Cultivation and further breeding has happened on three different fronts: in India, China and in Europe
Brassica rapa subsp. oleifera: Spring turnip rape is also used for oil production, like the more frequently cultivated Rape (Brassica napus var. napus)
Brassica rapa subsp. rapa: White- / May Turnip is a subspecies of Wild Turnip Rape and forms of wild turnip were first cultivated 3.500 years ago in India.
Brassica napus subsp. rapifera syn. B. napobrassica syn. B. x napus: Turnips (rutabaga, canadian- / swedish turnip, Dotsche, Steckrübe) came from Scandinavia or Russia and are one of the few Northern European species. They are thought to be a subspecies of Rape and aroses from a cross betwen turnips (stemming from wild turnip rape, Brassica rapa syn. B. campestris) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea). Historical records indicate that it was first grown in Finland in the 17th century.
Brassica napus var. napus: Rape for oil production
Brassica oleracea: Cabbage came from coastal areas in Western Europe, Wild Cabbage is still found on Helgoland Island, German Sea. The selection and cultivation began 4.000 years ago, but the wild species was used for food much earlier.
Brassica oleracea 'Gongylodes group': Turnip Cabbage is a cross between Wild Cabbage and Wild Turnip Rape and occured lately in Europe
More subspecies emerged from a complex relationship between Brassica- species: http://en.wikipedia....i/Triangle_of_U
Raphanus sativus: Radish also has its origin in the Mediterranean area and stems from the wild Raphanus raphanistrum

Cleavers (Galium aparine) and Lesser Celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) are a common European plants and there are evidences for the use as vegetable at Dutch wetland sites, 5.400-7.500 years ago.
Date Palms (Phoenix dactylifera) cultivation goes back to 7000 years and stem from the Crete Date Palm (Phoenix theophrasti) which still grows wild on the island of Crete: http://afrsweb.usda....s/2011/1579.pdf
White Goosefoot (Chenopodium album) is one of the most widespread species of the world and now can be found on every continent except Antarctica, from the tropics to the Arctic. It was apparently used by the Ertebolle culture (6.000-7.000 years ago) in Denmark, Southern Sweden and Northern Germany
Annual Seablite / Orache (Suaeda maritima) occurs on European coasts and there are evidences for the use of its seeds as food, 6.100 years ago in Dutch wetland sites.
Pine Nuts in Europe from the Stone Pine (Pinus pinea) were harvested since the stone age. It has been cultivated for its nuts for over 6.000 years
Asparagus is known in China for over 5000 years, but is thought to have its origin in Europe (also known in old Egypt)
Red Beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris), Chard (B.v. 'Cicla') and Sugar Beet (B.v. 'altissima') stem from wild Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima, which still grows on Helgoland (like wild cabbage). It was first cultivated in Northern Europe between 5.000 - 10.500 years ago (Neolithic site in Aartswoud, Netherlands) and in the Mediterranean 4.000 years ago.
Cucumbers came from India, but since 2200 years in the Mediterranean area
Carrots are cultivated since 2000 years and are a cross (in Asia Minor) between 3 clans: The white from the Mediterranean, the yellow from Afghanistan and the purple from Iran
Hazelnuts came from South-Western Europe after the last ice age
Parsnips have its origin in the Mediterranean area

Common Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius)- roots were used for food before Black Salsify (Scorzonera hispanica) became popular, and has wild ancestor from the Mediterranean area (Tragopogon porrifolius subsp. australis) and is known since the antiquity but cultivated since the 16th century. Other wild salsifies were also used as food like Western Salsify (Tragopogon dubius) and Meadow Salsify (Tragopogon pratensis)
Black Salsify (Scorzonera hispanica)- roots are still used as food and were introduced from Spain to the rest of Europe in the 17th century, but it were also mentioned as product on a Syrian market from 1575. So it is one the latest cultivated food plant species.
There are many wild growing European Scorzonera- species from which the roots can be eaten like Scorzonera austriaca (contains Kava- compounds), S. laciniata, S. cana and S. humilis

Edited by mindperformer
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Wild carrot from the danube dam in Vienna:

th_946734688_DaucuscarotaWildkarotte1_122_27lo.JPG

Wild Asparagus in the danube alluvial forest:

th_946826774_DSC01770WilderSpargel2_122_21lo.JPG

Wild parsnip in the danube alluvial forest:

th_519469516_IMG_1194_Pastinak_122_578lo.JPG

The ancestor of rice, Oryza rufipogon:

th_947088668_OryzarufipogonWilderReis3_122_29lo.JPG

Edited by mindperformer
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Interesting post, thanks! To be fair though, the articles are talking about wild grains, not crop or cultivated grains. If the identification of the grain was correct, and it was used for food, this is interesting indeed. Especially the speculation that the grain was used for breads rather than porridges!

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Can also add Amaranth at approx. 8000 years in cultivation, a staple of the Aztecs.

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you are absolutely right, raketemensch... my misunderstanding was, that I thought the grinding tool was an earth hoe

thanks, waterboy, I've overlooked that the South American crop cultivation also dates far back... quinoa is even longer cultivated, since 9000 years

I completed the list a bit

an interesting link, but the numbers seemed high, what do you think?

http://factsanddetai...54&subcatid=343

They mentioned 11.500 years old beans in Spirit cave, but according to this site, its only 9.000 years old: http://www.fofweb.co...nt&WinType=Free

and according to this book the oldest layers in Spirit cave are 10.000 years old: http://books.google....20years&f=false

Gorman dated it as far back as 9.800-8.500 BP: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoabinhian#The_Hoabinhian_and_plant_domestication

Edited by mindperformer

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Small peas from Nepal, with close relationship to the wild peas:

2lbc4nc.jpg

Brown soy beans from Nepal, also with close relationship to the wild soy bean, which is also brown:

10f1cfs.jpg

Sorghum bicolor- millet-flour from Nigeria, 24-fold:

r29kzr.jpg

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Great millet (Sorghum bicolor)- flour from Nigeria ...it has a slight sweet taste:

th_908852720_Sorghumhirse_Mehl1_122_429lo.JPG

African millet or Ragi (Eleusine coracana)- flour:

th_908984414_Fingerhirse_Mehl2_122_171lo.JPG

Teff- bread (selfmade with sourdough, 70% Eragrostis tef- flour from Ethiopia, spelt flour, soybean flour, sesame, sunflower seeds, wild caraway and juniper berries):

th_291442011_Teff_Brot_122_40lo.JPG

Edited by mindperformer
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Wild Tomato 'yellow currant' (Solanum pimpinellifolium) from Peru:

th_914904228_WildtomateSolanumpimpinellifoliumgelbeJohannisbeere1_122_218lo.JPG

Wild Chili 'Tepin' (Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum / var. aviculare) from Mexico:

th_915504544_Capsicumannuumvar.glabriusculumx_122_143lo.JPG

Edited by mindperformer
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Wood strawberries harvest from the forest:

30ww80m.jpg

Wild blackberries and wild cornel cherries from the forest:

2u47f45.jpg

Wild juneberries:

bdthky.jpg

Wild Raspberry:

awyq0x.jpg

Edited by mindperformer
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there were some editing complications and some texts were lost...

Does somebody have a copy of the text in the first post of this thread before it got erased by me?

Unfortunately it was one of my few plant listings, which I made only online, so no backup or whatever...

It was much research, so I would be glad if somebody saved the text after 'sweet potato' (especially the European plants).

Edited by mindperformer

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[You can paste it back in, then I'll delete this post.... done]

---

Edited by coin
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Many thanks, coin! You saved much work!

Thanks again :lol: B):):worship:

Now I modified it with more info...

Edited by mindperformer

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Again an awesome thread mate, thanks again!

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thanks, mutant :-)

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great thread and all, but like

> what about cannabis and tobacco!? surely they must both score a few thousand years... :P

wikipedia gives them 10 and 3 thousand, respectively. anyone have any better info on this?

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Yes, I have also done much research on this issue, I didn't mention tobacco, because its no food crop, but I forgot the long history of Cannabis grown for the seeds in China...

Tobacco:

Nicotiana tabacum is found only in cultivation, it is believed to be a hybrid of Nicotiana sylvestris, N. tomentosiformis (both native to the Andes, the last primarily in Bolivia) and maybe N. octophora

Tobacco has been used and cultivated in South America for a very long time, 10.000 years by some accounts: http://books.google....ccounts&f=false

Nicotiana rustica emerged evolutionary from N. paniculata and N. undulate

N. rustica was cultivated in Eastern North America 2000 years ago: http://www.uiowa.edu...os/Tobacco.html

Nicotiana bigelovii plays a great role in the cultures of the Southern Westcoast tribes of the USA and once was their only cultivated crop. It was first cultivated by the natives of California, but collected it from the wild long before domestication began.

Edited by mindperformer
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Terrific thread

"Great millet (Sorghum bicolor)- flour from Nigeria ...it has a slight sweet-sour taste:"

Must be a varietal trait because i grow & mill an african white Sorghum bicolor and it is nutty-sweet tasting, definitely not sour at all.

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@waterboy: Figs are in the list and this article is exactly where I got the age determination

@shortly: ...yes I must correct this. Now I know why it had a slight sour taste: there were bugs in it and I saw this small beetles after I made the first meal from it, when I tried to transfer it to a glass...

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did the aboriginal's do any croping of some sort i have heard that they used to take Castanospermum australe

seeds and push them into the ground would explain the dispersion of the species

http://www.anbg.gov....m-australe.html

also used as a ethnomed in treating aids

http://www.ncbi.nlm....les/PMC2491302/

http://web.up.ac.za/default.asp?ipkCategoryID=19376&subid=19376

now im off to extract some castanospern1ine

Edited by bigred82

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interesting species,

This tropical tree is distributed throughout the east coast of Oz, New Caledonia and Vanuatu but why do you think the Aborigines cultivated the species, does it occur near archeological aboriginal sites?

The Western Torres Strait Islanders may have practiced real agriculture (yams): http://austhrutime.com/agriculture.htm

Other Aborigines practiced firestick agriculture.

http://www.fsd.monas...pamphlet_po.pdf

be careful not to extract the toxins from Castanospermum

Edited by mindperformer

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lol....holidays - idle hands do the devils work. Sorry Mindpeformer overlooked it.

I also thought of Woad, but its a dye crop. Thinking,thinking....

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I've made many additions again...

Interesting articles:

http://www.slate.com...ric_times_.html

http://books.google....rassica&f=false

Edited by mindperformer

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The best study on the origin, chemotaxonomy and genetics of Cannabis indica vs. C. sativa- subspecies, chemo- and biotypes:

http://www.amjbot.or...t/91/6/966.full

https://www.forum.haszysz.com/chemotaxonomic-analysis-cannabinoid-variation-cannabis-cannabaceae-t22436.html?amp;p=336009

Edited by mindperformer
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More wild plants with ancient use (in the list of the first post):

Meadow Salsify (Tragopogon pratensis):

5nj7v6.jpg

Jacquin Salsify (Scorzonera cana):

20s6pa0.jpg

Viper's Grass (Scorzonera humilis):

10wpqgx.jpg

Austria-Salsify (Scorzonera austriaca)... contains sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoid glycosides and kavalactones like Desmethoxyyangonin, which is also an euphoric Kava- compound:

msm4cl.jpg

Edited by mindperformer
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